October 30th: Is the Japanese game industry in decline?

In his interview with Gamespot, Keiji Inafune opens by lamenting the sorry state of the Japanese game industry, pointing to the lacking Japanese presence at GDC, and the apparently declining influence of Japanese developers on the world stage. While such pessimism is entirely understandable from Inafune, considering the mishandling of the Mega Man series by Capcom, the fortunes of the Japanese game industry need not be considered so downcast. Certainly, it is possible to speak of a period from the late eighties to the early years of the new millennium, where Japanese products unambiguously dominated the gaming scene, a situation that has since degraded. Yet, at the apogee of Japanese influence in the early nineties, only Japan and the United States could boast significant gaming industries; Canada, the United Kingdom and Germany were only marginal presences, while Russia, Eastern Europe, China and South Korea had little in the way of game industries. If the Japanese influence has declined, it has come largely through facing vastly increased competition, while facing potentially larger, but more fragmentary markets.

There is also the process alluded to in the article by Mia Consalvo, of the cultural hybridization of video gaming. A little over a year after his Gamespot interview, Inafune would go on to successfully crowdfund a 'spiritual successor' to his Mega Man series, entitled Mighty No.9 on Kickstarter. While the staff for the new game remains largely Japaneseⁱ, an American website was used to solicit funding and presumably substantial amounts of support came from West users of Kickstarter. The situation described by Consalvo has intensified substantially in the intervening years since its publication, especially in light of platforms such as Kickstarter, breaking down barriers between national traditions of game design. Thus, a Japanese company recently saw success in raising funds for new game with a hybrid Japanese-Western development teamⁱⁱ, while a current pledge drive for Cosmic Star Heroine – fully funded at this writing – cites classic Japanese titles Chrono Trigger and Phantasy Star as inspirationsⁱⁱⁱ.

It would be wrong, then, to begin eulogies for Japanese gaming; rather, as with other national traditions, seems to be integrating into a trans-national fusion, where it becomes more difficult to speak of a game that is distinctly 'Japanese' or 'Western'.

ihttp://www.kickstarter.com/projects/mightyno9/mighty-no-9

iihttp://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1300298569/project-phoenix-japans-indie-rpg-feat-aaa-talent?ref=card

iiihttp://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1596638143/cosmic-star-heroine-sci-fi-spy-rpg-for-pc-mac-ps4?ref=category

October 23rd: Commentary on Hiroki Azuma

In his book, Hiroki Azuma proposes that Otaku embody a new and unique approach to media consumption. In the second chapter, Azuma introduces the concept of database consumption, a relationship chiefly about atomized elements such as characters, settings and moe-elements, which he contrasts with narrative consumption. This is, I believe, a reasonably bold approach that deserves some critique. In order to accept Azuma's argument, we must first subject it to some questions:

1. Is 'Database' consumption all that new? That is to say, are we confident that no examples of this phenomena exist in all of prior history?
2. Does 'Database' consumption accurately describe works aimed at Otaku?

To answer the first question, we find that there exist quite a few instances of similar processes. Fan-fiction, after all, has a relatively long history. Yet going back farther reveal an example far closer to Azuma's proposed Otaku model. Christian writers, poets, painters and sculptors, have spent many centuries producing a layer of works derived from the Bible.

Is it simulacra? The immediate answer would be no, considering that Biblical cannon always retained authority. There exists at least a few notable examples, however – the foremost being the Book of Mormon, which if considered 'fan-fiction', certainly achieved the same level as the original tome amongst adherents. Even amongst more mainstream sects, there were derivative works that achieved similar authority – the popularity and influence of The Pilgrim's Progress puts it into this category in early-modern England. Additionally, since the Bible cannot directly relate to certain forms of art, being a text rather than a painting, sculpture or building, certain derivative works achieved a sort of local authority in their field. David, by Michelangelo, might well be considered simulacra, considering that it is a depiction of a character in the Bible (one that had been itself adapted previously), yet holds a degree of renown that excludes it from being a 'copy'.

An excellent example of Christian simulacra might be found in Milton's Paradise Lost. For the epic, Milton lifted characters (God, Lucifer, Adam and Eve), settings (Heaven and Hell), and themes (original sin, salvation) from the Bible. Many of the characters display the characteristics that would make them immediately recognizable to the intended audience, but the narrative is in some ways contradictory of the original source – i.e the devil is treacherous and takes the form of a snake, yet is depicted sympathetically through much of the work. Paradise Lost is simulacra; it relies on the Bible for much of its content, and yet is not a copy.

The purest examples of this archaic 'Database consumption' can be seen in the depictions of Saints and other holy figure. In much the same way Azuma points to a database of Moe characteristics, so to did there exist a 'database' of saintly characteristics. Thus, St. Bartholomew could be identified by his flayed skin, or St. John by wearing camel hair, even as the backgrounds and facial appearances shifted from work to work.

Of course, it may be countered that Christianity subscribed to a 'Grand Narrative', which united the disparate works. However, the different sects of Christianity – Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, etc. represented wildly differing worldviews; only the characters remained the same. Thus, we see much the same 'Database consumption', sans the internet and telecommunications.

In reference to the second question, we might find fault with Azuma's focus on the consumer, at the expense of examining the producers of content. Implicit in his conception of database consumption, is a certain condemnation of the content; certainly, one's material cannot be of any real value, in and of itself, if it merely consists of an agglomeration of database elements. Certainly there exist many examples of purely exploitative content in Otaku culture, as in other genres, which are tailored to fit particular consumer interests, such as Moe, without any consideration of narrative or style. Undoubtedly, Azuma's point is boosted by a recent anime, conceived and produced entirely on the basis of a standalone promotional clipⁱ.

At same time, there are examples of content that are quite clearly more than simply the sum of their parts. The anime film Ghost in the Shell was an extraordinary success, spawning film and television sequels, video games and merchandising, as well as the usual fan material – doujins, artwork, etc. In this respect, it closely conforms to the 'database' model. Yet Ghost in the Shell has also been recognized for its narrative and thematic qualities – for instance, in regards to its discussion of genderⁱⁱ. Such abstract content defies the database model because it cannot be extracted and replaced in a separate context. One cannot simply extract a treatment of gender or cybernetics and expect it to function alongside an arbitrarily chosen setting and characters. If a particular piece of media evokes the abstract, it is not simulacrum, as it has a clear delineation from a copy. Nor is it merely an assortment of 'database' attributes, since there exist elements that are not reproducible, atomized parts.

Database consumption and Video Games

Thus far, we have pointed to 'Database consumption' prior to Otaku, and examples of Otaku media that defy databases. Despite this, it remains valid to consider whether Azuma's theory holds true to video games. Games have certain characteristics which would seem to make them especially suited to Azuma's model. As a new media, barely four decades old, video games cannot lay claim to the same narrative traditions that exist in older art forms. Perhaps more than any other media, video game developers seem eager to recycle settings and characters, demonstrated by the overabundance of sequels, or by the continuous rehashing of space operas, high fantasy and the post-apocalyptic. One could even point to a game such as Marvel vs. Capcom, which features a combination of wildly unrelated characters, as proof that video game is the quintessential embodiment of 'Database consumption'.

Conversely, video games also have a number of features that would seem to discourage this interpretation. To a certain extent, the database items that Azuma refers to – characters, settings, and the underlying Moe elements – are less necessary in video games than in other forms of media. Games can have a plot, characters and setting, and many do, but it is not a necessity. Pong had none of these. One might argue that gameplay mechanisms could constitute 'database' elements, but these in many way analogous to literary techniques or musical conventions; to expand the 'database' to encompass them would stretch the term to the point of risking meaninglessness. Furthermore, gamers would appear to have a rather clear hierarchy of importance and quality, easily distinguishing between titles even in the same genre. Medal of Honor is not Call of Duty, Command and Conquer is not Starcraft, and Star Ocean is not Legend of Mana. This is to say that the copy is not indistinguishable from the original and that there is some value attached to the title, rather than the constituent elements.

One might go further than this, and argue that the essential nature of video games rejects 'database consumption', or at least renders it a non-issue. Specifically, the elements of paidea present in video games allow individuals to endlessly reinterpret the constituent parts of the game.

To use an analogy – suppose one is playing with LEGO blocks, using the assorted blocks of previous construction sets. Although the available components are drawn from a 'database' of previously used items, each block retains none of the meaning it previously held. A block that was previously a functionless façade may become a structural component, or vice-versa.

Similarly, a gamer may decide to replay a game in a way that radically reconfigure the elements of gameplay. For example, 'Speedruns' in DOOM and Quake reinterpreted the objectives of the game, altering the importance of many gameplay mechanics, and ignoring the narrative components of the experience. Seen through the frame of paidea, the database model dwindles into insignificance, because rules are constantly changing. There can be no 'database', as the elements themselves become amorphous, re-purposed not only between games, but individually, often during a single session of play.

To conclude, I would argue that, as an explanatory model, the concept of 'Database consumption' faces some serious flaws. It is arguably neither a new phenomena, nor one that comprehensively explains Otaku media, and furthermore, may be considerably undermined by the creative potential of video games.

ihttp://kotaku.com/congrats-devoted-fans-the-swimming-anime-is-now-real-482662233

iiFor an example of such a discussion, see: Carl Silvio. "Refiguring the radical cyborg in Mamoru Oshii's 'Ghost in the Shell.'." Science Fiction Studies no. 1 (1999): 54.

October 16 - On the Otaku Question?

Edit: This was written before I had a chance to look at the two Akihabara articles; the 'Galbraith piece' refers to the article on Moe.

The readings, taken together, offer a fascinating implicit conclusion about the Otaku culture. It may be read that the Otaku is a sort of 'ghetto identity', a group identifiable chiefly through its exclusion from broader society, with Akihabara as the ghetto without walls. Azuma, for instance, cannot help but condemn the Otaku as 'animals', albeit as in the Hegelian sense. The method of condemnation is not so important as the condemnation itself, so far as it ascribes to the Otaku a unique (and superficial) method of consuming culture. The Freedman article provides insight into the degree of separation: the Otaku can achieve mainstream acceptance, but only so long as they forgo their origins and 'graduate', as with the 'Train Man', into an image of conventional masculinity. Then there is the identification of Otaku as 'dame' in the Okada and Morikawa interview, supposedly without a 'negative' connotation.

Additionally, as demonstrated by Freedman and Gailbraith, the Okatu self-identify as being unacceptable to the mainstream. Gailbraith describes one of his interviewees as considering himself “excluded from the market of love”. Similarly, Freedman explains how the 'train-man' had exchanged goodbyes with his former 2chan comrades upon achieving romantic success, implying that his apparent entry into the mainstream had disqualified him to hold the Otaku identity.

What does this then imply about the concept of Moe? Perhaps that Otaku, having considered themselves ineligible for standard relationships, are looking for a sort of 'disarmed' femininity. Behind the infatuation with youth and virtue lies an abject terror of the mature and worldly. It may be more productive to examine the escapist and fantasy elements of the Otaku culture, than to subscribe to the idea that the subculture represents an expression of postmodernism.

An additional note on the Galbraith piece:

Certain parts of Galbraith's argument seem somewhat questionable. His statement that cosplay serves to allow the participant to 'become the image' appears, especially now that the practice has become firmly entrenched in the West, rather ridiculous. It ignores the much more significant social role of costuming, particularly in asserting group membership in a particular subculture; the ubiquitous cosplay in public at Comiket and Comic-con support the idea that this is a social, rather than individual phenomenon.

Furthermore, his examination of Moe is complicated by certain counter-examples. The sub-genre of Yandere, for example, involves characters who have an outwardly Moe appearance, but whose affection eventually manifests an obsessive, often homicidal interest (the most direct analogue in the West being the antagonist from the Steven King book and 1990 film Misery). The sub-genre may be seen exaggerating typical Moe traits to the point of self-parody, suggesting the Otaku have a greater degree of self-consciousness than they are given credit for.

Deadly Premonition - Presentation follow-up

Often, the history of Video Gaming has been a pursuit of the bigger and better – titles with groundbreaking graphics or gameplay are those that are remembered, and all else is forgotten. Increasingly, however, recent appraisals have made room in the pantheon for the 'also-rans', the flawed games that nevertheless offer some unique or innovative elements despite themselves. Deadly Premonition is one such game, whose highly polarized reception may be seen as an example of the difference between the 'ludic' and narrative approaches to examining games.

Deadly Premonition was released for the Xbox 360 in February of 2010, and was distributed by Ignition Entertainment in North America. In Japan, the game was launched under the title Red Seeds Profile. The primary public figure behind the title has been Hidetaka Suehiro, who often goes by the moniker 'SWERY”, and the game was developed by Access Games. Suehiro has himself worked on a number of titles in a variety of roles, including the later release of Ace Combat on the PSPⁱ, but Deadly Premonition was his second stint as Game Director. His first directorial role was on the Playstation 2 game Spy Fiction (Access Games, 2003), which was lauded for its unique stealth mechanics, but generally panned for its poor technical performanceⁱⁱ – the latter a recurring theme with Deadly Premonition.

For the most part, Deadly Premonition plays as a horror game in the same vein as Resident Evil or Silent Hill, where the player must solve puzzles and defeat an otherworldly bestiary while working through disturbing and frightening situations. Additionally, the game integrates some mechanics from adventure and open-world titles. When not on missions, the player is free to pursue side-quests, converse with secondary characters and explore the environment. The plot revolves around FBI Agent Francis York Morgan, the player character, who arrives in the rural town of Greensvale in order to investigate the recent murder of a young woman.

Originally released for the price of $19.99ⁱⁱⁱ, Deadly Premonition was situated as a 'budget' title that received outside the large publishers. The game likely would have languished at the fringes of gaming community, had it not been for the unusually polarized critical reception, which eventually attracted significant attention. Many review outlets were quick to dismiss the game based on its technical shortcomings, especially in contrast with comparable titles on the Xbox 360. A representative review can be found from IGN, whose critic awarded the game a score of 2 / 10^iv. The review tears the game for its poor graphics, described as being more comparable to those of the previous-generation Playstation 2, and the sub-par, repetitive audio^v. Of particular importance to many reviewers was the title's control scheme, which used the right analog stick for both movement and direction, in contrast with many other games which split the two functions between either stick. A Gamespot reviewer described this arrangement as working “with all the grace of an Abrams tank”^vi.

Improbably, there existed another school of thought about Deadly Premonition. Critic Jim Sterling, writing on Destructoid.com, gave the game a glowing review, awarding a score of 10 / 10^vii. GameCritics.com featured an eleven page article defending the game^viii – especially unusual considering that the site's original review was highly negative^ix. This second approach to the game fully accepted the criticisms of the title's technical attributes; in his extended piece, Daniel Weissenberger even admits that Deadly Premonition's gameplay was “largely abominable and dated”^x. Yet, the same critic argued that the game's highly unconventional story and writing, and it's unique manner of delivering narrative, was sufficient to outweigh its glaring technical flaws^xi.

A key element of the game's narrative is its American inspiration. Specifically, nearly every reviewer was conscious of the fact that Deadly Premonition is an extended homage to David Lynch's early 1990's television show Twin Peaks. The short-lived television series featured an FBI agent investigating a murder in small-town America, a setting that is shared with the game, as is the focus on surrealist narratives. That said, Deadly Premonition is not merely 'Twin Peaks the Game'; indeed, Suehiro decided scrap the game's plot and characters at one point in development when it appeared the similarity to Twin Peaks was too great^xii.

The use of Twin Peaks does, however, provide another example of the ability of Japanese developers to effectively assimilate and comment upon American cultural artifacts. Unlike western games, whose references to Japanese culture have been infrequent and rarely overt, Japanese games have often situated their narratives in a western context. By using an American setting, as in Resident Evil or Metal Gear Solid, Japanese studios keep overseas audiences at ease in familiar environments and forestall major 'culture shock'. This would prove particularly important for Deadly Premonition, whose North American sales vastly outnumbered domestic figures^xiii.

In addition it its unique premise, Deadly Premonition also employed a number of unorthodox strategies for conveying its narrative. Most notable among these is the unusual portrayal of the main character. Agent York is a highly unhinged individual, who uses his morning coffee for divination and frequently speaks aloud to his alternate personality, whom he calls Zach. The effect of the latter is of particular interest, as the constantly one-sided dialogue makes it appear as if York is speaking directly to the player^xiv, introducing an awareness of the character's motivations and feelings. In addition, the game makes an effort to break many horror game tropes related to ambiance. Although the game has its solemn moments, just as often the game may interrupt the murder investigation with an upbeat saxophone track, or have the main character crack inappropriate jokes during an autopsy. Unlike many other horror titles, Deadly Premonition feels no compunction to treat grotesque or disturbing content with high level of 'seriousness'. Equally unconventional is the use of open-world mechanics, which allows the player considerable freedom to explore the town. While such methods have seen some use in game such as Dead Rising, the use of cars in Deadly Premonition more closely resembles titles such as Grand Theft Auto. Non-Player Characters move in the town according to their own schedules, which positions the character as an observer inside a dynamic world, rather than retaining a static environment.

Considering the vast difference between appraisals of the Deadly Premonition's lacklustre technical aspects and its unique narrative, the disagreement between reviewers might be cast as the layman's equivalent of the Ludology vs. Narratology debate alluded to in James Newman's Videogames^xv. If examined from a Ludic perspective, the game has very little of interest, as its ability to foster play is undermined by the difficulty presented to the user by its technical flaws – hence the low review scores. If considered from a Narratological point of view, the game's unconventional storytelling comes to the forefront, and the clunky gameplay might be considered an acceptable cost for a unique narrative. It appears as though Suehiro himself was leaning toward the narrative interpretation during development; an early build of the game contained no combat at all, but was subject to modification after Access was told by a publisher that a game without gunplay would not sell in the North American market^xvi.

A final element of Deadly Premonition's reception is its arguable status as a 'cult' game. As a budget title, Deadly Premonition was unlikely to become a commercial success; indeed, the game has only sold about a quarter-million copies worldwide since its release^xvii, a pittance in the console market. Yet the game has an online presence far outstripping its modest sales. For example, the title was one of only three games selected for a full-length 'endurance run' by gaming site Giant Bomb^xviii. Enthusiastic attention from the fans who did buy the game has lead to a PS3 'Director's Cut' edition, and an upcoming release on PC through Valve's Steam platform – the latter being of particular note, as it required fan voting to 'greenlight' the project. Deadly Premonition may be seen as an example of 'B' game production, in the same sense as a 'B' movie. The game's antiquated graphics show just how far the development was from the resources and cash available to 'triple-A' titles, yet it demonstrates a unique narrative approach that would be unlikely to be accepted by large, mainstream publishers.

Highly imperfect even according to its admirers, Deadly Premonition is regardless an example of the creativity possible within the Japanese game industry and a demonstration of the wide gulf between the schools of thought within the incipient discipline of video game studies.

i“Hidetaka Suehiro (Person)”, GiantBomb, Accessed Oct 7, 2013, http://www.giantbomb.com/hidetaka-suehiro/3040-97866/

iiPhilip Kollar, “The Sinner's Sandwich: Deadly Premonition's creator on making a good bad game”, Polygon, February 12, 2013, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.polygon.com/features/2013/2/12/3977154/the-sinners-sandwich-deadly-premonitions-creator-on-making-a-good-bad

iiiJim Sterling, “Review: Deadly Premonition”, Destructoid, February 27, 2010, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.destructoid.com/review-deadly-premonition-165168.phtml

ivErik Brudvig, “Deadly Premonition Review”, IGN, February 22, 2013, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://ca.ign.com/articles/2010/02/23/deadly-premonition-review

vErik Brudvig, “Deadly Premonition Review”

viKevin VanOrd, “Deadly Premonition Review”, Gamespot, Accessed October 9, 2013 http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/deadly-premonition-review/1900-6258973/

viiJim Sterling, “Review: Deadly Premonition”

viiiDaniel Weissenberger, “Deadly Premonition is the Game of the Year”, Gamecritics.com, July 1, 2010, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.gamecritics.com/daniel-weissenberger/deadly-premonition-is-the-game-of-the-year-part-1. 1

ixSparky Clarkson, “My Coffee Warned Me About It”, Review of Deadly Premonition, Gamecritics.com, March 14, 2010, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.gamecritics.com/sparky-clarkson/deadly-premonition-review

xDaniel Weissenberger, “Deadly Premonition is the Game of the Year”, 1

xiibid

xiiPhilip Kollar, “The Sinner's Sandwich: Deadly Premonition's creator on making a good bad game”

xiiiOnly 5,648 copies were sold in Japan to October 2013, compared with ~250,000 total copies sold worldwide; “Deadly Premonition”, VGchartz, Accessed Oct 8, 2013, http://www.vgchartz.com/game/40628/deadly-premonition/Japan/, http://www.vgchartz.com/game/41606/deadly-premonition/Japan/

xivDaniel Weissenberger, “Deadly Premonition is the Game of the Year”, 5

xvJames Newman, Videogames, (Routledge, 2013), Kindle Edition, 92

xviPhilip Kollar, “The Sinner's Sandwich: Deadly Premonition's creator on making a good bad game”

xviiFigures are for the original Xbox 360 release; “Deadly Premonition”, VGchartz, Accessed Oct 8, 2013 http://www.vgchartz.com/game/40628/deadly-premonition/

xviiiPhilip Kollar, “The Sinner's Sandwich: Deadly Premonition's creator on making a good bad game”

 

Works Cited

Brudvig, Erik. “Deadly Premonition Review”, IGN, February 22, 2013, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://ca.ign.com/articles/2010/02/23/deadly-premonition-review

 

Clarkson, Sparky. “My Coffee Warned Me About It”, Review of Deadly Premonition, Gamecritics.com, March 14, 2010, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.gamecritics.com/sparky-clarkson/deadly-premonition-review

 

Kollar, Philip. “The Sinner's Sandwich: Deadly Premonition's creator on making a good bad game”, Polygon, February 12, 2013, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.polygon.com/features/2013/2/12/3977154/the-sinners-sandwich-deadly-premonitions-creator-on-making-a-good-bad

 

Newman, James. Videogames, Routledge, 2013, Kindle Edition

 

Sterling, Jim. “Review: Deadly Premonition”, Destructoid, February 27, 2010, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.destructoid.com/review-deadly-premonition-165168.phtml

 

VanOrd, Kevin. “Deadly Premonition Review”, Gamespot, Accessed October 9, 2013 http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/deadly-premonition-review/1900-6258973/

 

Weissenberger, Daniel. “Deadly Premonition is the Game of the Year”, Gamecritics.com, July 1, 2010, Accessed October 7, 2013, http://www.gamecritics.com/daniel-weissenberger/deadly-premonition-is-the-game-of-the-year-part-1.

 

“Hidetaka Suehiro (Person)”, GiantBomb, Accessed Oct 7, 2013, http://www.giantbomb.com/hidetaka-suehiro/3040-97866/

 

“Deadly Premonition”, VGchartz, Accessed Oct 8, 2013 http://www.vgchartz.com/game/40628/deadly-premonition/

 

“Deadly Premonition”, VGchartz, Accessed Oct 8, 2013 http://www.vgchartz.com/game/41606/deadly-premonition

Is "The Legend of Zelda" classist, racist and sexist?

Having not played the game, I'm not a position to say. This author on Salon.com, seems to believe as much though.

http://www.salon.com/2013/10/05/the_legend_of_zelda_is_classist_sexist_and_racist/

 

 



October 9: Comment on Mobilizing the Imagination

A major element of Mizuko Ito's discussion of children's gaming centres around the issue of participation and how players – children in this case – can 'remix' media to suit their own preferences. The question left unasked in the article is whether certain forms of New Media, such as different forms of hardware, can affect the degree to which play is participative. To put it another way, are certain platforms less friendly to 'remixes' than others?

The question is especially relevant to comparisons between Japan and the West, considering, as the author notes, that Western gaming has historically had a much greater focus on the PC, while Japanese gaming has been oriented around consoles and portable gaming. In the West, a vibrant 'modding' community has evolved chiefly because the act of releasing games on the PC inherently puts the developer's code at the mercy of users. Sufficiently motivated players could use the same PC that they employed for gameplay in order to modify and enhance the software. Conversely, most consoles have been extremely unfriendly to modification. Not only have consoles traditionally lacked appropriate input methods, software, and until the advent of the Xbox, storage, but they have also been subject to outright prohibition of modification by the manufacturer. Beginning with the lockout chip on the NES, and continuing to the more recent litigation regarding mod-chips, console makers have attempted preserve their authority over the hardware. Console gamers tend to use their hardware as a consumptive device, purchasing new games when they have completed the old, rather than modifying legacy titles or making new ones themselves. One might posit, albeit with extreme hesitation, that gaming in the West has stressed 'participation' to a much greater degree.

Through the availability of proper tools, and the degree of manufacturer interference then, the degree of 'participation' varies from platform to platform. Another application of McLuhan's “The medium is the message.” perhaps. Speaking personally, I happen to be much more cynical than Ito about the possibilities of new media. With the gradual shift from open, highly customizable platforms such as Windows PCs to closed architecture systems such as phones and tablets, one suspects that the participatory potential of video gaming will decline.