Wednesday 20 November 2013

Presentation Write-up - The Eroge Genre: Depictions of Sexuality in Japanese Gaming


It is in the genre of the 'erotic' that Japan's video game industry most clearly distinguishes itself from the West. Japanese adult gaming follows from the country's tradition of open pornographic production, where the line between the ordinary and the adult is not always clearly demarcated. The diversity of productions in vast, with some titles boasting of a perversity that would please the Marquis de Sade, and others whose sexuality is but an aside, albeit a significant one, before an emphasis on emotional and narrative depth.
 
Japan possesses the somewhat dubious distinction of being the world's foremost producer of erotic video games, referred to there as Eroge. While similar games have been produced in the west, few have been commercial successes, and none have approached the level of influence attained by Japanese titles such as Fate/Stay Night or Kanon. Some measure of the difference is disclosed by retail patterns; while in the United States, an adult AO rating (such as that applied to 'Hot Coffee' editions of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas) often means the extinction of said title from store shelves and major online retailers, eroge in Japan might be found in a storefront in Akibara.
 
Such a relaxed approach to depictions of sexuality has a long history in Japan. As far back as the 17th century, during Japan's Edo period, sexually explicit woodcuts were appearing, known as Shungai. Unlike the nudes of European art, Shunga was created for explicitly pornographic purposesii, with many examples offering frank depictions of intercourse. Contemporary foreign observers in China, Korea and Europe, were appalled by the Japanese tradition and sexual ethics, an indication that shock and dismay over Japanese pornography is hardly a new phenomenon. Similarly, some trends in erotica have similarly ancient roots; the 19th century work “Dream of a Fisherman's Wife”, depicted below, is often considered a progenitor to the lamentable modern 'tentacle' genre.
 
Dream of a Fisherman's Wife; Katsushika Hokusai, 1814
 
A more recent precursor is found in the post-war film trend toward Pinku Eiga - “Pink film”. As Japanese television ownership took off in the late 1950's, Japanese film studios faced a crisis as admissions decreased in proportion. The solution for filmmakers was to turn to risque soft-core productionsiii, which could draw large audiences despite their small budgets and rapid shooting schedules. Although the basic concepts is effectively equivalent to the American 'Exploitation' genre, certain Japanese directors used 'pink films' to employ avant-garde cinematography and discuss serious themes. The works of Kōji Wakamatsu, for instance, included an extremely eclectic blend of pornographic with left-wing radicalism; his film Secrets behind the Wall was entered into the 1965 Berlin film festival, alongside works by Goddard and Polanskiiv. The consideration of adult works as being suitable for sedate discussion – without diminishing their erotic appeal – appears to be a trend that distinguishes the Japanese genre from its western analogue.
 
Of course, not all filmmakers possessed such lofty ambitions. Especially as the genre became more popular and large studios began to enter the arena – 40% of all productions were 'pink' by 1965v - arthouse direction gave way to an appeal based upon steadily more extreme subject matter. To a large degree, this trend was aided by the structure of Japanese obscenity law, which specifically prohibited depictions of genitalia or penetration. The rules in Japan worked as a sort of reverse-Miller test; unlike the American precedent, which established subjective criteria based on 'community standards', the Japanese system merely dictated a set of rules. Thus, so long as they followed a few simple rules, studios found they could depict anything not explicitly forbiddenvi. The Romano Porno of the 1970's became renowned for their elements of rape, torture and extreme sexual violence, with subgenres labelled 'Violent Pink' and 'Erotic Grotesque'vii.
Although it may share the some of the excesses of Pinku Eiga, Eroge can claim no similarly artistic beginnings. The first games arose during the 1980's on NEC home computersviii and similar devices such as the MSX, beginning with Koei's Night Lifeix, and follwed by titles such as Dragon Knight (ELF, 1989) and Rance (Alice Soft, 1989). The PC platform became a bastion for Eroge gaming, whose content was judged unsuitable for consolesx - hardly surprising, considering for example, the family-centric approach of Nintendo.
 
Most Eroge titles stick to the conventions of the visual novel, with majority of 'gameplay' consisting of static backgrounds with superimposed character sprites and text. Just as 'Pink film' was dominated by low-budget productions, the use of the visual novel format allows these games to be produced with limited budgets and small staffsxi. However, a surprising number of titles also contain ancillary gameplay modes, that add portions of high interactivity, while the main plot as still communicated through the visual novel format. For example, Tears to Tiara (Leaf, 2005) contains an isomorphic RPG element, while Princess Waltz (Pulltop, 2006, Trans. Peach Princess 2008) features a card-based combat. Considering that many of these gameplay structures are outmoded in comparison with their mainstream equivalents, one may even be temped to ascribe a 'retro' sensibility to such titles. The primitive nature of these games, however, is probably better explained by a lack of resources, which prevents direct competition with major releases, rather than any artistic intentions; thus, eroge is 'retro' by accident.
 
The 'faux-retro' in Eroge: Dragon Knight from 1989 (left) and Lightning Warrior Raidy from 2005 (right)
 
The type of eroge most immediately recognizable to Western audiences, however, had little relation to such diversions. Nukige refers to the brand of eroge given over almost entirely to pornographyxii, and Rapelay would become the most infamous Nukige in the west, despite the lack of an official translation. Released by Illusion-soft in 2006, the game received little attention until 2009, when it was discovered by Western mediaxiii. The title revolved around the violent rape of a mother and her two daughters, with game elements including forced abortionsxiv. Even the box art for the software is disturbing, with one victim seemingly shielding another from aggressive outstretched hands. While some commentators have argued that Rapelay is not representative of the majority of eroge titlesxv, it is clearly not the only title to contain repugnant content. Tsuki:Possession is an earlier title who content centres around violence and sadism so brutal as to shock even the most jaded observerxvi, albeit with the entirely unconvincing proviso that the actions are the unwilling results of demonic possessionxvii. Perhaps the most unsettling example is found in Idols Galore (Sekilala, Trans. G-Collections 2004), where rape is presented as the first step in a long and happy relationshipxviii.
 
The existence of such games does, to a certain extent, dismantle the stereotype that Japan is less tolerant of violence than North America. There is, however, still a distinction to be made. Depictions of violence in Western titles such as Grand Theft Auto or Call of Duty, is even at its worst, generally anonymized. While a player might gun down crowds of enemies, the victims of such violence are never humanized; emotional depiction is absent and expressions of suffering are often extremely limited. Rapelay and similar games are nauseating precisely because the violence they depict is so personalized. As one observer put it, the most awful and despicable element of Rapelay was “the tears that glisten and move in the little girl's eyes”xix.
 
Why are these games, full of unpleasant and misogynistic content, made? One might point to the existing video game semantics; games generally have not treated the issue of consent. In mainstream RPGs, players are frequently able to enter, occupy and pillage the property of game characters, with little no consequences. Many video games centre around themes of attack, invasion and competition; if a player sees something they want, they take it. Concepts of cooperation, respect, negotiation, or even altruism are rarely at the fore, yet these are essential for proper depiction of sexuality.
 
More specific to Japan, one may also point to the influence of prior media. While it is not possible to say with existing sources whether Pinku Eiga had a direct impact on developers, players would certainly have been at least tangentially aware of the genre. The preexistence of similar material may have desensitized many to violent and sadistic themes by the time they appeared in eroge.
 
Additionally, it could be suggested that this material is merely a reflection of chauvinism in greater Japanese society. Such an argument must be advanced cautiously, lest one plunge into well-worm Orientalist accounts of sexuality. Indeed, Japan boasts of a rate of (reported) sexual assault much lower than those in the west. Still, Japanese attitude can be gleaned from such phenomena as the Chikan – the molestation of women that occurs to such an extent that some companies have introduced women-only subway trainsxx – or the reference to women as “birth-giving machines” by the then-Minister of Health, Hakuo Yanagisawa, in 2007xxi.
 
Perhaps the simplest explanation is that such games are simply not all that popular, appealing largely to niche audiences. Hiroki Azuma argued that rape games are only a small presence in the Otaku communityxxii, and an eroge is considered a smash hit if it sells 150,000 copies, with 2000-3000 being a regular figure for smaller productionsxxiii. While this might do little for any sense of moral outrage, it may at least soothe worries that extreme eroge is having any broad impact on social perceptions of women.
 
Contrasting approaches to Adult material: A Nukige title (left) and a Nakige game (right)
Indeed, it is a surprising fact that the most successful and influential eroge are those that pay relatively little attention to sex. The opposite of the pornographic Nukige is the Nakige or 'crying game'xxiv. Titles in the Nakige genre feature very little pornographic content – although brief moments of explicit sexuality are still very much present – instead focusing on cultivating immersive narratives that produce a sense of pathos. The move away from the purely pornographic title was already evident by 1992, with the release of Dōkyūsei (ELF, 1992) the first 'dating sim' type titlexxv, but the definitive shift was seen with the games ONE ~To the Radiant Season~ and To Heartxxvi. In One, the protagonist faces a sort of metaphysical disintegration, in which he fades out of the consciousness of everyone he knows, that can only be avoided by forging a strong tie with one of the main female characters; sexual content is relatively minor in comparison with the overall length of the title – although the remaining scenes would still disqualify such games from store shelves in the west, and the violent themes of Nukige are entirely absent.
 
In Azuma's Otaku: Japan's Database Animals, he classifies such titles as being little more than shallow appeals to emotion, the construct of assorted moe elements without an overarching 'grand narrative' to provide greater meaningxxvii. Certainly, the trite, repetitive nature of many of these games, almost overwhelmingly set in high school, adds a great deal of credence to this argument. At the same time, while restricted by the confines of genre, certain titles embody the discussion of serious subject matter previously found in 'Pink film'. Kana: Little Sister (D.O, 1999, Trans. G-Collections, 2002) depicts the relationship of a brother with his younger sister, who suffers from kidney disease; consideration of weighty topics such as chronic illness is simply unheard of in Western adult titles, and indeed, sees little serious attention even in mainstream games. Echoing the combination of the dramatic and the perverse in Pinku Eiga, commentator Leigh Alexander wrote in The Escapist that the game reflected the “bleakness of mortality”, while expressing discomfort with the eroticization of the junior characterxxviii.
 
Once again, a more cynical explanation can also be proposed for this turn to emotional depth. With games costing 7000-10000 yen ($70-100 dollars)xxix, there is a significant need to justify such purchases, especially with the extremely limited (and often reused) graphics of many games. The use of in-depth narratives is a cost-effective way to increase the appeal of a game, without greatly increasing budgets.
 
Whether as Nakige or with more pedestrian premises, a significant number of these games featuring a concentration of narrative have found a second life in other forms of media. The transmedia tendencies of Japanese adult titles is another facet which distinguishes them from those of the West. Fate/Stay Night (Type-Moon, 2004) was an extended action adventure title that, although not Nakige, possessed few explicit scenes throughout its extraordinary gameplay length. The title subsequently saw an all-ages re-release on the Playstation 2, television and film anime adaptions and a manga series. Tears to Tiara similarly had an adapted internet radio play. The reverse movement is also possible; the all-ages visual novel Little Busters! (Key, 2007) saw a later adult re-release on the PC, followed by an adult spin-off Kud Wafter (Key, 2010), which itself had an all-ages port for the PSP.
 
Unlike the West, Japan has not ring-fenced its adult media with cordon of moral and cultural prohibitions. Instead, there is a porous boundary between the mainstream and the purely adult, where pornography and narrative depth may exist exist side-by-side, and erotic titles can be re-purposed for wider consumption. On the flipside, there is a casual toleration of the callous, the violent and the hateful, a refusal to contain the perverse. Eroge is a continuation of a long tradition of this open border.

***

A final question was posed during class – where is the line to be drawn? At what point does basic decency demand that appeals of free speech be put aside? Certainly, the recourse to censor is the natural reaction when confronted with Rapelay or Tsuki:Possession, titles without a single redeeming virtue. Yet, the issue is not necessarily so clear cut.
 
It can be argued that the censor's pen is inappropriate because it fails to reach the core of the problem. It suppresses, without addressing a cause. It has been argued that in response to Rapelay, the underlying culture that allows such a work to be produced and enjoyed, should be the object of attention, rather than the title that is merely its expressionxxx.
 
Furthermore, local cultural standards of decency have proven problematic in a globalized world. The Japanese developers of Rapelay complained bitterly that their product had complied with existing Japanese lawxxxi, and the original release had been uncontroversial there. Whatever the absolute moral transgressions of the title – of which there were many – the outrage in the West flowed in large part from the game's violation of Western norms and taboos regarding the depictions of sexuality. It is worth adding that the situation had been reversed a few years earlier, when the right of free speech had been rigorously defended in the backlash against the Danish-origin cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad. Through criticism of other value structures, it is possible that we open ourselves to similar critique.
 
Ultimately, there is a greater issue with discussions of censorship. The question of whether or not to censor, and if so, how much, implicitly suggests that the only relevant issue is the danger posed by certain titles, and ignores the ability of prospective game developers to confront the issues at stake with content in response. If an existing game glamorizes misogyny, it is at least foreseeable that a differently minded designer could create another title that condemns it. Campaigns for restriction of video games have tended to exploit a fear of new media, and remain ignorant to the positive possibilities inherent within.
 
In the realm of film, the virulent racism of Birth of a Nation (1916, USA) or Der ewige Jude (The Eternal Jew) (1940, Germany) is still perfectly legal to own, but remain wholly irrelevant. Their power has been robbed in large part because the creators of cultural content, filmmakers amongst them, eventually produced a countervailing message with their work.
 
If the message of titles such as Rapelay is to be successfully overcome, then it is games themselves that offer the surest path. A new generation of developers must produce games, perhaps even eroge, that convey an alternative message of respect and dignity for women. Through confronting problematic content on its own terms, and undermining its logic, it can be banished for good.
 
 
iTimon Screech, Sex and the Floating World, (Reaktion Books: London, 2009) 10
iiScreech, Sex and the Floating World, 36-7
iiiColette Balmain, “Pinku Eiga/Pink Films” in Directory of World Cinema: Japan, ed. John Berra (Intellect Books: Chicago, 2010) 249
ivhttp://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000091/1965
vIsolde Standish, Politics, Porn and Protest: Japanes Avant-Garde Cinema in the 1960s and 1970s, (Continuum: New York, 2011) 92
viBalmain, “Pinku Eiga/Pink Films”, 249
viiBalmain, “Pinku Eiga/Pink Films”, 250-1
viiiSatoshi Todome, “A History of Eroge”, Trans. 'kj1980', Accessed Nov 12, 2013. http://cc.bingj.com/cache.aspx?q=http%3a%2f%2fwww.shii.org%2fgeekstories%2feroge.html&d=5038496021743758&mkt=en-CA&setlang=en-CA&w=xasI1e8sNRXzPkphbzBBTwxfLU5DZL4q
ixJohn Szczepaniak, “Part 3: Software” in Retro Japanese Computers: Gaming's Final Frontier http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/JPNcomputers/Japanesecomputers3.htm
xSzczepaniak, http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/JPNcomputers/Japanesecomputers3.htm
xi Hiroki Azuma, Otaku: Japan's Database Animals, Trans. Johathan E. Abel and Shion Kono, (University of Minnesota Press: London, 2009) Kindle Edition, Location 1014
xiiBrian Ashcraft and Shoko Ueda, “How Erotic Games Learned To Cry”, Kotaku, July 28, 2010 http://kotaku.com/5598491/how-erotic-games-learned-to-cry
xiiiBrian Ashcraft, “Why Is CNN Talking About Rapelay?”, Kotaku, March 31, 2010, http://kotaku.com/5506016/why-is-cnn-talking-about-rapelay
xivMargaret Hartmann, “Amazon Drops Rape Simulation Video Game”, Jezebel, February 12, 2009, http://jezebel.com/5152478/amazon-drops-rape-simulation-video-game
xvBrian Ashcraft, “Years Later, Rapelay Making Waves In Japanese Press”, Kotaku, May 11, 2009, http://kotaku.com/5248715/years-later-rapelay-making-waves-in-japanese-press
xviZack Parsons, who reviewed the title at SomethingAwful.com, reacted to the game even more negatively than the later Rapelay,
Zack Parsons, “Possession” review of Tsuki:Possession, Something Awful, May 14, 2003 http://www.somethingawful.com/hentai-game-reviews/possession/
xviiEmily Taylor, "Dating-Simulation Games: Leisure and Gaming of Japanese Youth Culture." Southeast Review of Asian Studies 29 (2007): 192-208. 196
xviiiZack Parsons, “Idols Galore” review of Idols Galore, Something Awful, May 14, 2003 http://www.somethingawful.com/hentai-game-reviews/idols-galore/
xixZack Parsons, “Rapelay” review of Rapelay, Something Awful, May 14, 2003, http://www.somethingawful.com/hentai-game-reviews/rapelay/
xx“Japan Tries Women-Only Train Cars to Stop Groping”, ABC News, June 10, 2005 http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/International/story?id=803965&CMP=OTC-RSSFeeds0312
xxiJustin McCurry, “Japanese minister wants 'birth-giving machines', aka women, to have more babies”, The Guardian, Jan. 29, 2007, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/29/japan.justinmccurry
xxiiPatrick W. Galbraith, “Love Bytes”,Metropolis, Aug 27, 2009 http://metropolis.co.jp/features/feature/love-bytes/ Pg 3
xxiiiGalbraith, “Love Bytes”, Pg 1-2
xxivAshcraft and Ueda, “How Erotic Games Learned To Cry”
xxvTodome, “A History of Eroge”
xxviTodome, “A History of Eroge”
xxvii Azuma, Otaku: Japan's Database Animals, Location 1089-1098
xxviiiLeigh Alexander, “Heart-wrenching Hentai”, The Escapist, July 31, 2007 http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_108/1315-Heart-wrenching-Hentai
xxixGalbraith, “Love Bytes”, Pg 3
xxxKaty Kelleher, “In Defense Of Hentai: Is Rapelay Really Dangerous?”, Jezebel, April 5, 2010, http://jezebel.com/5509660/in-defense-of-hentai-is-rapelay-really-dangerous
xxxi Ashcraft, “Why Is CNN Talking About Rapelay?”
 
 
Works Cited
 
 
Alexander, Leigh. “Heart-wrenching Hentai”, The Escapist, July 31, 2007 http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue_108/1315-Heart-wrenching-Hentai
 
Ashcraft, Brian and Ueda, Shoko. “How Erotic Games Learned To Cry”, Kotaku, July 28, 2010 http://kotaku.com/5598491/how-erotic-games-learned-to-cry
 
Ashcraft, Brian. “Why Is CNN Talking About Rapelay?”, Kotaku, March 31, 2010, http://kotaku.com/5506016/why-is-cnn-talking-about-rapelay
 
Ashcraft, Brian. “Years Later, Rapelay Making Waves In Japanese Press”, Kotaku, May 11, 2009, http://kotaku.com/5248715/years-later-rapelay-making-waves-in-japanese-press
 
Azuma, Hiroki. Otaku: Japan's Database Animals, Trans. Johathan E. Abel and Shion Kono, University of Minnesota Press: London, 2009. Kindle Edition
 
Balmain, Colette. “Pinku Eiga/Pink Films” in Directory of World Cinema: Japan, ed. John Berra. Intellect Books: Chicago, 2010
 
Galbraith, Patrick W. “Love Bytes”,Metropolis, Aug 27, 2009 http://metropolis.co.jp/features/feature/love-bytes/
 
Hartmann, Margaret. “Amazon Drops Rape Simulation Video Game”, Jezebel, February 12, 2009, http://jezebel.com/5152478/amazon-drops-rape-simulation-video-game
 
Kelleher, Katy. “In Defense Of Hentai: Is Rapelay Really Dangerous?”, Jezebel, April 5, 2010, http://jezebel.com/5509660/in-defense-of-hentai-is-rapelay-really-dangerous
 
McCurry, Justin. “Japanese minister wants 'birth-giving machines', aka women, to have more babies”, The Guardian, Jan. 29, 2007, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/29/japan.justinmccurry
 
Parsons, Zack. “Possession” review of Tsuki:Possession, Something Awful, May 14, 2003 http://www.somethingawful.com/hentai-game-reviews/possession/
 
Parsons, Zack. “Idols Galore” review of Idols Galore, Something Awful, May 14, 2003 http://www.somethingawful.com/hentai-game-reviews/idols-galore/
 
Parsons, Zack. “Rapelay” review of Rapelay, Something Awful, May 14, 2003, http://www.somethingawful.com/hentai-game-reviews/rapelay/
 
Screech, Timon. Sex and the Floating World, Reaktion Books: London, 2009
Standish, Isolde. Politics, Porn and Protest: Japanes Avant-Garde Cinema in the 1960s and 1970s, Continuum: New York, 2011

Szczepaniak, John. “Part 3: Software” in Retro Japanese Computers: Gaming's Final Frontier http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/JPNcomputers/Japanesecomputers3.htm
Taylor, Emily. "Dating-Simulation Games: Leisure and Gaming of Japanese Youth Culture." Southeast Review of Asian Studies 29 (2007): 192-208.
 
Todome, Satoshi. “A History of Eroge”, Trans. 'kj1980', Accessed Nov 12, 2013. http://cc.bingj.com/cache.aspx?q=http%3a%2f%2fwww.shii.org%2fgeekstories%2feroge.html&d=5038496021743758&mkt=en-CA&setlang=en-CA&w=xasI1e8sNRXzPkphbzBBTwxfLU5DZL4q
 
(Please note that the above source was accessed through the Bing cache. The original appears to have disappeared from the web. A copy can be furnished upon reque
Japan Tries Women-Only Train Cars to Stop Groping”, ABC News, June 10, 2005 http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/International/story?id=803965&CMP=OTC-RSSFeeds0312


Tuesday 19 November 2013

October 20 - On Newman and 'Characters; or, Gaming as History-making


(Presentation follow-up to be posted later tonight)

In the eighth chapter of “Videogames”, Newman proposes a model for understanding 'character' in simulation games without engrossing narratives. Here, he resorts to a sort of cybernetic argument, making mention of the now vintage “Cyborg Manifesto” of Donna Harraway. I happen to think that this approach is way off mark.

Instead, I would propose that characters in these sorts of games factor into a process of 'history-making'. I was a real-time strategy fanatic when I was younger, back when the genre was much more prolific then it is currently. For many of these games – Starcraft, Age of Empires, Command & Conquer, etc – characters and story were present, but often had a marginal role in the actual gameplay, and none at all in multiplayer matchups. Yet in some senses, these elements could be invented during play. Over the course of a game, I was conscious of the entire course of the match – how a particular piece of ground was contested, or the slow, grinding siege of a particular base. Individual units might not have been noteworthy, but I certainly kept track of the various formations that I established, each having a particular role – artillery support or a crack commando team – which itself lead to differences in form. Occasionally, I might take a battle-weary unit and securely seclude it at the rear of my base, a 'Saving Private Ryan'-like gesture when all of its comrades had fallen in battle.

Even in non-military simulations, such as SimCity, this manufactured history still played a major role. The tremendous metropolis that one might create does not simply hang in a moment of time, but is given value by one's knowledge of its course and development. After all, it would not be much fun to play without being conscious of the path your city took, from quaint village to bustling metropolis, through booms, budgetary droughts and natural disasters. The city itself becomes a story, and a cast of characters and events are spontaneously manufactured to around it.

Many simulation games encourage this sort of experience. For example, most Real-time strategy games offer a final tally at the end of each session, single or multiplayer, laying out the statistics of the game. By looking at this end screen, it is possible to determine whether a particular match was relatively peaceful or extremely bloody, whether a particular player ran a skillful economy or a wasteful system. Some games, such as Age of Empires II, offered a graph detailing the relative progression of each player toward victory or defeat, a sort of session history in miniature.

Furthermore, certain games include an option to save recordings of matches, allowing for the broad dissemination of such histories. As much as replays are framed as player versus player events, spectators cannot help but refer to units, bases and armies as individual entities, as if separate from the will of the player.

These types of games are enjoyable not out of some sort of 'cybernetic' connection with the title, but rather because they are held at arm's length, indulging in a sort of assisted fiction creation.

Tuesday 5 November 2013

November 5: Nostalgia and 'Retro' Games


In the article “The Past as the Future? Nostalgia and Retrogaming in Digital Culture”, Jaakko Suominen approaches the phenomeon of retrogaming primarily through the lens of nostalgia. While I think that this can be a useful way to examine the subject, especially in regard to the many derivative products that Suominen considers  – artwork, music, etc. - there exists another way of tackling the subject.

For one, the creation of 'retro' games or games with intentionally primitive graphics and sound, may be viewed as a reaction to the increasing complexity and scope of modern game development. Many independent game developers have come to understand that by eschewing the quest for high-detail and realism, they can escape the consequent costs and keep staffs and budgets small. Games such as VVVVVV (Terry Cavanagh, 2010) and Hotline: Miami(Dennaton Games, 2012), by using relatively minimalist graphics – VVVVVV is done in the style of the Commodore 64and no voice acting, allowed for their development by a single creator and duo respectively. In a sense, many 'retro' games herald a rediscovery of the creative potential inherent in one-man or small teams, freed from the editorial and stylistic confines imposed by high budgets and large publishers.

Additionally, the wish for a long-past gaming experience often transcends simple nostalgia; the experience of gaming really has changed fundamentally. Even within the same genre, older titles may represent gameplay styles far removed from their modern-day successors. For example, one of the earliest first-person shooters (FPS), DOOM(ID Software, 1993), seems to share the basics of its gameplay – shooting, a first-person perspective – with the current FPS Call of Duty: Ghosts. DOOM, however, having been developed in the early 90's by a small team, could not join in the cinematic aspirations of the later game and possessed little in the way of narrative content; instead, much of the gameplay in DOOM revolves around level exploration, puzzle solving, rationing of rare supplies and devising tactics to deal with powerful monsters. Call of Duty, on the other hand, embraces a gameplay model centred around prearranged 'set piece' experiences, scripted by designers, as well as a strong narrative element. The resource management mechanics have been played down, and exploration is effectively absent, while most opponents are numerous but fragile humans, rather than difficult monsters. The result is that older games may differ wildly from even their apparent heirs. Thus, the search for a long-departed game may not be the quixotic search for an idealized past; frequently, it is a hunt for a distinct game type no longer reproduced.

Tuesday 29 October 2013

October 30th: Is the Japanese game industry in decline?


In his interview with Gamespot, Keiji Inafune opens by lamenting the sorry state of the Japanese game industry, pointing to the lacking Japanese presence at GDC, and the apparently declining influence of Japanese developers on the world stage. While such pessimism is entirely understandable from Inafune, considering the mishandling of the Mega Man series by Capcom, the fortunes of the Japanese game industry need not be considered so downcast. Certainly, it is possible to speak of a period from the late eighties to the early years of the new millennium, where Japanese products unambiguously dominated the gaming scene, a situation that has since degraded. Yet, at the apogee of Japanese influence in the early nineties, only Japan and the United States could boast significant gaming industries; Canada, the United Kingdom and Germany were only marginal presences, while Russia, Eastern Europe, China and South Korea had little in the way of game industries. If the Japanese influence has declined, it has come largely through facing vastly increased competition, while facing potentially larger, but more fragmentary markets.

There is also the process alluded to in the article by Mia Consalvo, of the cultural hybridization of video gaming. A little over a year after his Gamespot interview, Inafune would go on to successfully crowdfund a 'spiritual successor' to his Mega Man series, entitled Mighty No.9 on Kickstarter. While the staff for the new game remains largely Japanesei, an American website was used to solicit funding and presumably substantial amounts of support came from West users of Kickstarter. The situation described by Consalvo has intensified substantially in the intervening years since its publication, especially in light of platforms such as Kickstarter, breaking down barriers between national traditions of game design. Thus, a Japanese company recently saw success in raising funds for new game with a hybrid Japanese-Western development teamii, while a current pledge drive for Cosmic Star Heroine – fully funded at this writing – cites classic Japanese titles Chrono Trigger and Phantasy Star as inspirationsiii.

It would be wrong, then, to begin eulogies for Japanese gaming; rather, as with other national traditions, seems to be integrating into a trans-national fusion, where it becomes more difficult to speak of a game that is distinctly 'Japanese' or 'Western'.


ihttp://www.kickstarter.com/projects/mightyno9/mighty-no-9

iihttp://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1300298569/project-phoenix-japans-indie-rpg-feat-aaa-talent?ref=card

iiihttp://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1596638143/cosmic-star-heroine-sci-fi-spy-rpg-for-pc-mac-ps4?ref=category